makalah sociolinguistic DIALECTS AND VARIETIES

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1.  BACKGROUND

Speakers have various ways of saying the same thing. It may arise from the mechanical limitations of the speech organs for instance speaker may not be fully under the speaker’s control. The choice of linguistically elements is done by consciously or unconsciously. Two or more distinct but linguistically equivalent variants represent the existence of a linguistic variable (Llamas et al., 2007). Linguistic variable is linguistic unit or a sociolinguistic has variant in lexical and grammatical, but are most often phonological.  For instance British English is (h) which stands for the presence or absence of /h/ in words such as hammer, house and hill. Chicano English the levelling of past tense be in ‘We was there,’ (Llamas et al., 2007). Speakers in Aberdeen, North-East Scotland may choose between the terms boy, loon, loonie, lad or laddie when referring to a young male person, or between quine, quinie, lass, lassie, or girl in reference to a young female. Different words refer to the same things; therefore we can conclude that each language has a number of varieties (Wardhaugh, 2006).

The terms of variety language are emerged due to different systems reflecting different varieties of the human condition. Variety is a specific set of ‘linguistic items’ or ‘human speech patterns’ (presumably, sounds, words, grammatical features, etc.) which we can connect with some external factor apparently, a geographical area or a social group (Hudson, 1996; Ferguson, 1972 and Wardhaugh, 2006). Languages can be at variance in lexical, grammatical, phonological and other ways depends on different social, geographical and other circumstances determine what elements will be needed and, therefore developed, and for that reason sociolinguistics believe that such unique sets of items or patterns do exist (Wardhaugh, 2006).

1.2.  PROBLEM

1.    What is language and dialect?

2.    What is regional dialects?

3.    What is social dialects?

4.    What is styles, registers and beliefs?

1.3.  OBJECTIVES

1.    To know what is language and dialects.

2.    To know what is regional dialects.

3.    To know what is social dialects.

4.    To know what is styles, registers and beliefs.

CHAPTER 2

DISCUSSION

1.   

2.   

2.1.  LANGUAGE AND DIALECT

Wardhaugh (2006) distinguish the terms language and dialect as follow: Lower part of variety language is dialect and as the main part is language, therefore we can say that Texas English and Swiss German are dialects of English and German. Some languages have more than one dialect for instance English are spoken in various dialects. Language and dialect can be the same when language was spoken by a few people and has only one variety but some expert say it is unsuitable to say dialect and language is the same because the requirement of lower part can not be found. We can say also Dialect A, B, C and so on is the part of language X because it is spoken by many varieties dialect A, B, C. Edward (2009) also define dialect as a variety of a language that differs from others along three dimensions: vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation (accent). Because they are forms of the same language. He states also dialects are mutually unintelligible. Indeed language is major part of dialect. The others dialect that is mutually unintelligible for example Dutch and German speaker can not understand each other even basically both of them have same language, another example is Mandarin and Cantonese, Thai and Lao, Hindi and Urdu, Serbia and Croatian etc. Wardhaugh (2006) also distinguish the term vernacular and term Koine. Vernacular is the speech passed down from parent to child as primary mode of communication and Koine is speech shared by people of different vernaculars. UNESCO in Mesthrie (2001) define also vernacular as a language which is the mother tongue of a group which is socially or politically dominated by another group speaking a different language. Vernacular traditionally viewed as the mother tongue of a speaker, the vernacular refers to non-standard varieties often recognized to stand in contrast with the standard variety (Llamas et al., 2007). Koine In a broad, it refers to any common or widely shared variety of language. A narrower definition refer to a variety of a language, normally showing mixing, levelling and simplification, which develops as a result of rapid population movement and mixing of speakers of different dialects in a new community. The term 'koine' originates from Greek word for 'common' (Mesthrie, 2001).

7 criteria of language

1.    Standardization   :    Codification of language: grammars, spelling books, dictionaries, literature. It is possible to teach. To make standardization, it require choosing one elite vernacular and it can be prestigious

2.    Vitality                :    the existence of a living community of speakers.

3.    Historicity           :    a particular group of people finds their identity by using a particular language

4.    Autonomy           :    Other speakers of a language must be felt different from other languages

5.    Reduction            :    particular variety may be regarded as a sub-variety rather than as an independent entity.

6.    Mixture                :    Feelings about the purity or lack of purity of variety

7.    De facto norms    :    speakers recognize as ‘good’ speakers and ‘poor’ speakers and that the good speakers represent the norms of proper usage.

(Adopted from Wardhaugh, 2006)

The concepts of ‘power’ and ‘solidarity’ such as status, money, influence, togetherness feeling can lead people to preserve a local dialect

2.2.  REGIONAL DIALECTS

Certain differences from geographical area one to another in pronunciation, in the selecting and constructing of words, and in syntax of a language such distinctive varieties of local variety are called regional dialects (Wardhough, 2006). The study that investigates different varieties on the basis of clusters of similar and different features in particular regions, towns or villages is called regional dialectology (Edward, 2009). It is quite interesting that the discriminations respondents make in exercises like the Map drawing task and the accent-ordering task are often similar to the discriminations linguists make between varieties. Dialect–patois distinction is Patois is usually used to describe only rural forms of speech; we may talk about an urban dialect, but to talk about an urban patois. Patois also seems to refer only to the speech of the lower strata in society; again, we may talk about a middle-class dialect but not, apparently, about a middle-class patois. Finally, a dialect usually has a wider geographical distribution than a patois. According to Llamas et al. (2007) patois refer to a non-standard spoken variety and can carry the negative connotation of ‘uneducated’, and so is rarely used in sociolinguistics. Patois also well known as local languages in France are characterized by an 'incapacity to serve beyond their limited frameworks' and their speakers have 'difficulties in adapting them to the development of ideas and techniques' (Mesthrie, 2001). The term patois is found without negative connotation among some speech communities. Dialect geography is the term used to describe attempts made to map the distributions of various linguistic features so as to show their geographical provenance.  Now we go to Dialect vs. Accent section. Dialect is the variety of vocabulary, syntax, pronunciation. Accent is variety only in pronunciation. Accent also well-known as RP (receive pronunciation). Standard English as the prestige dialect of British English, prescribed in official and formal settings and approved for writing in the education system. RP is standard accent which can be taught and it is prestigious. British accent is preferred one to teach because it is lack a regional association within England. It is also known as BBC, Oxford, Queen English, and being Standard English in England. It tends to be spoken by educated speakers regardless of geographical origin.

2.3.  SOCIAL DIALECTS

Social dialect is difference speech associate with various social groups. Social dialects create among social groups and are related to a variety of factors such as social class, religion, and ethnicity. In India, for example, caste is one of the clearest of all social differentiators. Branch of linguistic study that linguistically city characterized is called social dialectology.

 Ethnic group in USA AAVE (African American Vernacular English), also known as Ebonics, Black English (BE), Black English Vernacular (BEV) show hyper corrective tendencies in that they tend to overdo certain imitative behaviors freely use the habitual form of misapplication rules. Hyper correction is the overgeneralization of linguistic forms which carry obvious social prestige often through the misapplication of rules (e.g. allows deletion ‘They are going’ can become ‘They going’ and dog pronounce as the vocal of book : dug).

2.4.  STYLES, REGISTERS AND BELIEFS

'style' relates to the typical ways in which one or more people do a particular thing. Style in language behavior thus becomes alternative ways of expressing the same content. Style is the way speakers speak, the speaker also can make a choice weather informal and formal, it depends on circumstance and the age and social group of participant (Wardhaugh, 2006). Registers refer to particular ways of using language in particular settings within that community. Register is a set of linguistic items were associated with discrete occupational and social groups. Surgeons, airline pilots, bank managers, sales clerks, jazz fans, and pimps employ different registers, they develop similar vocabulary and intonation  we also talk about dialect, register, and style independently, we may talk casually in local variety of language, write formal technical study and also making judgment “better or worse” to speaker who has the same background. And about belief is systems of ideas or ideology, some people believed that certain language is lack of grammar, we can speak English without accent. Also English is believed false language; pronunciation is based on spelling, and slipping language. The representations of belief can operate the interests of an identifiable social class or cultural group. This tendency will create language behavior and attitude by several group of people act or behave toward language differently and sociolinguist should strive for understanding how people behave toward language and linguistic feature rely on person as being particular place, a social class members, and specific profession.

CHAPTER 3

CONCLUSION

1.   

2.   

3.   

3.1.  LANGUAGE AND DIALECT

Wardhaugh (2006) distinguish the terms language and dialect as follow: Lower part of variety language is dialect and as the main part is language, therefore we can say that Texas English and Swiss German are dialects of English and German. Language and dialect can be the same when language was spoken by a few people and has only one variety but some expert say it is unsuitable to say dialect and language is the same because the requirement of lower part can not be found. Edward (2009) also define dialect as a variety of a language that differs from others along three dimensions: vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation (accent). He states also dialects are mutually unintelligible. Indeed language is major part of dialect. The others dialect that is mutually unintelligible for example Dutch and German speaker can not understand each other even basically both of them have same language, another example is Mandarin and Cantonese, Thai and Lao, Hindi and Urdu, Serbia and Croatian etc. Wardhaugh (2006) also distinguish the term vernacular and term Koine.

7 criteria of language

1.    Standardization

2.    Vitality

3.    Historicity

4.    Autonomy

5.    Reduction

6.    Mixture

7.    De facto norms

(Adopted from Wardhaugh, 2006)

3.2.  REGIONAL DIALECTS

Certain differences from geographical area one to another in pronunciation, in the selecting and constructing of words, and in syntax of a language such distinctive varieties of local variety are called regional dialects (Wardhough, 2006). The study that investigates different varieties on the basis of clusters of similar and different features in particular regions, towns or villages is called regional dialectology (Edward, 2009).

3.3.  SOCIAL DIALECTS

Social dialect is difference speech associate with various social groups. Social dialects create among social groups and are related to a variety of factors such as social class, religion, and ethnicity.

3.4.  STYLES, REGISTERS AND BELIEF

'style' relates to the typical ways in which one or more people do a particular thing. Style in language behavior thus becomes alternative ways of expressing the same content. Style is the way speakers speak, the speaker also can make a choice weather informal and formal, it depends on circumstance and the age and social group of participant (Wardhaugh, 2006). Registers refer to particular ways of using language in particular settings within that community. Register is a set of linguistic items were associated with discrete occupational and social groups. Belief is systems of ideas or ideology, some people believed that certain language is lack of grammar, we can speak English without accent.

REFERENCES

1.    Edward (2009). Language and Identity: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press: New York

2.    Llamas et al. Eds. (2007). The Routledge Companion to Sociolinguistics. Routledge: New York

3.    Meyerhoff M. (2006). Introducing Sociolinguistics. Routledge: New York

4.    Mesthrie R Eds. (2001). Concise Encyclopedia of Sociolinguistics Elsevier: UK

5.    Wardhaugh R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics Fifth Edition. Blackwell Publishing: Australia

6.    Yule G. (2010). The Study of Language Fourth Edition. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

7.    Yule G. (2006). The Study of Language Third Edition. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.